Se denomina Genética al estudio científico de cómo se trasmiten los caracteres físicos, bioquímicos y de comportamiento de padres a hijos. Este término fue acuñado en 1906 por el biólogo británico William Bateson.
Los genetistas estudian los mecanismos hereditarios en organismos que se reproducen de forma sexual, y determinan semejanzas, diferencias y similitudes entre padres e hijos que se reproducen de generación en generación según determinados patrones. La investigación de estos últimos ha dado lugar a algunos de los descubrimientos más importantes de la biología moderna.
La ciencia de la genética nació en 1900, cuando varios investigadores de la reproducción de las plantas descubrieron el trabajo del monje austriaco Gregor Mendel, que aunque fue publicado en 1866 había sido ignorado en la práctica.
Mendel, que trabajó con la planta del guisante (chícharo o arveja), describió los patrones de la herencia en función de siete pares de rasgos contrastantes que aparecían en siete variedades diferentes de esta planta. Observó que los caracteres se heredaban como unidades separadas, y cada una de ellas lo hacía de forma independiente con respecto a las otras. Señaló que cada progenitor tiene pares de unidades, pero que sólo aporta una unidad de cada pareja a su descendiente. Más tarde, las unidades descritas por Mendel recibieron el nombre de genes.
Poco después del redescubrimiento de los trabajos de Mendel, los científicos se dieron cuenta de que los patrones hereditarios que él había descrito eran comparables a la acción de los cromosomas en las células en división, y sugirieron que las unidades mendelianas de la herencia, los genes, se localizaban en los cromosomas. Ello condujo a un estudio profundo de la división celular.
Los cromosomas varían en forma y tamaño y, por lo general, se presentan en parejas. Los miembros de cada pareja, llamadoscromosomas homólogos, tienen un estrecho parecido entre sí. La mayoría de las células del cuerpo humano contienen 23 pares de cromosomas.
Los organismos superiores que se reproducen de forma sexual se forman a partir de la unión de dos células sexuales especiales denominadas gametos.
La unión de los gametos combina dos conjuntos de genes, uno de cada progenitor. Por lo tanto, cada gen —es decir, cada posición específica sobre un cromosoma que afecta a un carácter particular— está representado por dos copias, una procedente de la madre y otra del padre.
Rara vez la acción de los genes es cuestión de un gen aislado que controla un solo carácter. Con frecuencia un gen puede controlar más de un carácter, y un carácter puede depender de muchos genes.
Los caracteres que se expresan como variaciones en cantidad o extensión, como el peso, la talla o el grado de pigmentación, suelen depender de muchos genes, así como de las influencias del medio.
El principio de Mendel según el cual los genes que controlan diferentes caracteres son heredados de forma independiente uno de otro es cierto sólo cuando los genes existen en cromosomas diferentes.
Después de que la ciencia de la genética se estableciera y de que se clarificaran los patrones de la herencia a través de los genes, las preguntas más importantes permanecieron sin respuesta durante más de cincuenta años: ¿cómo se copian los cromosomas y sus genes de una célula a otra, y cómo determinan éstos la estructura y conducta de los seres vivos?
A principios de la década de 1940, dos genetistas estadounidenses, George Wells Beadle y Edward Lawrie Tatum, proporcionaron las primeras pistas importantes. Trabajaron con los hongos Neurospora y Penicillium, y descubrieron que los genes dirigen la formación de enzimas a través de las unidades que los constituyen. Cada unidad (un polipéptido) está producida por un gen específico. Este trabajo orientó los estudios hacia la naturaleza química de los genes y ayudó a establecer el campo de la genética molecular.
Desde hace tiempo se sabe que los cromosomas están compuestos casi en su totalidad por dos tipos de sustancias químicas,proteínas y ácidos nucleicos. En parte debido a la estrecha relación establecida entre los genes y las enzimas, que son proteínas, al principio estas últimas parecían la sustancia fundamental que determinaba la herencia. Sin embargo, en 1944, el bacteriólogo canadiense Oswald Theodore Avery demostró que el ácido desoxirribonucleico (ADN) era el que desempeñaba esta función.
Extrajo el ADN de una cepa de bacterias y lo introdujo en otra cepa. La segunda no sólo adquirió las características de la primera, sino que también las transmitió a generaciones posteriores.
Por aquel entonces, se sabía que el ADN estaba formado por unas sustancias denominadas nucleótidos. Cada nucleótido estaba compuesto a su vez por un grupo fosfato, un azúcar conocido como desoxirribosa, y una de las cuatro bases que contienen nitrógeno. Las cuatro bases nitrogenadas son adenina (A), timina (T), guanina (G) y citosina (C).
En 1953, el genetista estadounidense James Dewey Watson y el británico Francis Harry Compton Crick aunaron sus conocimientos químicos y trabajaron juntos en la estructura del ADN. Esta información proporcionó de inmediato los medios necesarios para comprender cómo se copia la información hereditaria.
Watson y Crick descubrieron que la molécula de ADN está formada por dos cadenas, o filamentos, alargadas que se enrollan formando una doble hélice, algo parecido a una larga escalera de caracol.
Las cadenas, o lados de la escalera, están constituidas por moléculas de fosfato e hidratos de carbono que se alternan.
Las bases nitrogenadas, dispuestas en parejas, representan los escalones.
Cada base está unida a una molécula de azúcar y ligada por un enlace de hidrógeno a una base complementaria localizada en la cadena opuesta.
La adenina siempre se vincula con la timina, y la guanina con la citosina.
Para hacer una copia nueva e idéntica de la molécula de ADN, sólo se necesita que las dos cadenas se extiendan y se separen por sus bases (que están unidas de forma débil); gracias a la presencia en la célula de más nucleótidos, se pueden unir a cada cadena separada bases complementarias nuevas, formando dos dobles hélices.
Si la secuencia de bases que existía en una cadena era AGATC, la nueva contendría la secuencia complementaria, o “imagen especular”, TCTAG. Ya que la base de cada cromosoma es una molécula larga de ADN formada por dos cadenas, la producción de dos dobles hélices idénticas dará lugar a dos cromosomas idénticos.
Desde que se demostró que las proteínas eran producto de los genes, y que cada gen estaba formado por fracciones de cadenas de ADN, los científicos llegaron a la conclusión de que debe haber un código genético mediante el cual el orden de las cuatro bases nitrogenadas en el ADN podría determinar la secuencia de aminoácidos en la formación de polipéptidos.
En otras palabras, debe haber un proceso mediante el cual las bases nitrogenadas transmitan la información que dicta la síntesis de proteínas. Este proceso podría explicar cómo los genes controlan las formas y funciones de las células, tejidos y organismos.
Diez años después de que se determinara la estructura del ADN, el código genético fue descifrado y verificado. Su solución dependió en gran medida de las investigaciones llevadas a cabo sobre otro grupo de ácidos nucleicos, los ácidos ribonucleicos (ARN).
Herencia humana
La mayoría de las características físicas humanas están influidas por múltiples variables genéticas, así como por el medio. Algunas, como la talla, poseen un fuerte componente genético, mientras que otras, como el peso, tienen un componente ambiental muy importante. Sin embargo, parece que otros caracteres, como el grupo sanguíneo y los antígenos implicados en el rechazo de trasplantes, están totalmente determinados por componentes genéticos. No se conoce ninguna situación debida al medio que varíe estas características.
La susceptibilidad a padecer ciertas enfermedades tiene un componente genético muy importante. Este grupo incluye la esquizofrenia, la tuberculosis, la malaria, varias formas de cáncer, la migraña, las cefaleas y la hipertensión arterial. Muchas enfermedades infrecuentes están originadas por genes recesivos, y algunas por genes dominantes.
Los biólogos tienen un gran interés en el estudio e identificación de los genes. Cuando un gen determinado está implicado en una enfermedad específica, su estudio es muy importante desde el punto de vista médico. El genoma humano contiene entre 50.000 y 100.000 genes, de los que cerca de 4.000 pueden estar asociados a enfermedades.
El Proyecto Genoma Humano, coordinado por múltiples instituciones, se inició en 1990 para establecer el genoma humano completo. El objetivo principal de este proyecto es trazar diversos mapas de genomas, incluida la secuencia nucleotídica completa del genoma humano.
Genetics.
Genetics is called the scientific study of how traits are passed onphysical, biochemical and behavioral parent to child. This term was coined in 1906 by the British biologist William Bateson.
Geneticists studying hereditary mechanisms in organisms that reproduce in a sexual way, and determine similarities, differences and similarities between parents and children that are reproducedfrom generation to generation according to certain patterns. Recentresearch has led to some of the most important discoveries of modern biology.

The science of genetics was born in 1900, when several researchers discovered plant reproduction work of Austrian monk Gregor Mendel, which was published in 1866 but had been ignored in practice.
Mendel, who worked with pea plants (peas or pea), described the patterns of inheritance in terms of seven pairs of contrasting traits that appeared in seven different varieties of this plant. Noted that the characteristic is inherited as separate units, and each of them did independently with respect to the other. He noted that each parent has pairs of units, but only provides one of each pair to their offspring. Later, the units described by Mendel were called genes.
Shortly after the rediscovery of Mendel's work, scientists realized that the patterns of inheritance that he had described were comparable to the action of chromosomes in dividing cells, suggesting that the Mendelian units of heredity, genes were located on chromosomes. This led to a deep study of cell division.
Chromosomes vary in shape and size, and usually occur in pairs.The members of each pair, llamadoscromosomas counterparts, have a close resemblance to each other. Most human cells contain 23 chromosomes pairs.
Higher organisms that reproduce sexually so formed from the union of two sex cells called gametes special.
The binding of gametes combines two sets of genes, one from each parent. Therefore, each gene-that is, each specific position on a chromosome that affects a particular character, is represented by two copies, one from the mother and one father.
Mendel, who worked with pea plants (peas or pea), described the patterns of inheritance in terms of seven pairs of contrasting traits that appeared in seven different varieties of this plant. Noted that the characteristic is inherited as separate units, and each of them did independently with respect to the other. He noted that each parent has pairs of units, but only provides one of each pair to their offspring. Later, the units described by Mendel were called genes.
Shortly after the rediscovery of Mendel's work, scientists realized that the patterns of inheritance that he had described were comparable to the action of chromosomes in dividing cells, suggesting that the Mendelian units of heredity, genes were located on chromosomes. This led to a deep study of cell division.
Chromosomes vary in shape and size, and usually occur in pairs.The members of each pair, llamadoscromosomas counterparts, have a close resemblance to each other. Most human cells contain 23 chromosomes pairs.
Higher organisms that reproduce sexually so formed from the union of two sex cells called gametes special.
The binding of gametes combines two sets of genes, one from each parent. Therefore, each gene-that is, each specific position on a chromosome that affects a particular character, is represented by two copies, one from the mother and one father.
Rarely, the action of genes is a matter of a single gene that controls a single character. A gene can often handle more than one character, a character may depend on many genes.
The characters are expressed as variations in quantity or extension, such as weight, size or degree of pigmentation, often dependent on many genes and environmental influences.
Mendel's principle according to which genes controlling different traits are inherited independently of one another is true only when the genes are on different chromosomes.
After the science of genetics was established and that it will clarify the patterns of inheritance through genes, the most important questions remained unanswered for over fifty years: how chromosomes are copied and their genes from one cell to another, and how they determine the structure and behavior of living things?
In the early 1940's, two American geneticists, George Wells Beadle and Edward Lawrie Tatum, provided the first important clues. They worked with the fungus Neurospora and Penicillium, and found that genes direct the formation of enzymes through their constituent units. Each unit (a polypeptide) is produced by a specific gene. This paper studies directed toward the chemical nature of genes and helped establish the field of molecular genetics.
It has long been known that chromosomes are composed almost entirely of two types of chemicals, proteins and nucleic acids. Partly because of the close relationship between genes and enzymes, proteins, initially seemed latter that determined the fundamental substance of heredity. However, in 1944, the Canadian bacteriologist Oswald Theodore Avery proved that deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was performed in this function.
DNA extracted from a strain of bacteria and introduced into another strain. The second not only acquired the characteristics of the first, but also transmitted to subsequent generations.
At that time, he knew that DNA consisted of substances called nucleotides. Each nucleotide was made in turn by a phosphate group, a sugar known as deoxyribose and one of the four bases containing nitrogen. The four nitrogenous bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C).
In 1953, the American geneticist James Dewey Watson and Francis Harry Compton Crick British pooled their knowledge of chemistry and worked together in the structure of DNA. This information is immediately provided the means to understand how hereditary information is copied.
Watson and Crick discovered the DNA molecule consists of two chains, or filaments, elongated is wound into a double helix, similar to a long spiral staircase.
Chains, or sides of the ladder, are constituted by phosphate molecules, and carbohydrates that are alternated.
The nitrogenous bases, arranged in pairs, representing the steps.
Each base is attached to a sugar molecule and linked by a hydrogen bond to a complementary base located on the opposite strand.
Adenine always binds with thymine, and guanine with cytosine.
To make a new, identical copy of the DNA molecule, one need only that the two chains are extended and are separated by their bases (which are joined to form weak), thanks to the presence in the cell more nucleotides, can be separated string attached to each new complementary bases, forming two double helices.
If the sequence of bases that exist in a chain was AGATC, the new contain the complementary sequence, or "mirror image" TCTAG.Since the base of each chromosome is a long DNA molecule formed by two chains, the production of two identical double helices give rise to two identical chromosomes.
Since it was shown that proteins were the products of genes, and each gene was composed of fractions of DNA strands, scientists concluded that there must be a genetic code by which the order of the four nitrogenous bases in DNA could determine the amino acid sequence in the formation of polypeptides.
In other words, there must be a process by which the nitrogenous bases transmit the information dictates the protein synthesis. This process could explain how genes control the forms and functions of cells, tissues and organisms.
Ten years after it was determined the structure of DNA, the genetic code was deciphered and verified. Their solution depended largely on research carried out on another group of nucleic acids, ribonucleic acids (RNA).
The characters are expressed as variations in quantity or extension, such as weight, size or degree of pigmentation, often dependent on many genes and environmental influences.
Mendel's principle according to which genes controlling different traits are inherited independently of one another is true only when the genes are on different chromosomes.
After the science of genetics was established and that it will clarify the patterns of inheritance through genes, the most important questions remained unanswered for over fifty years: how chromosomes are copied and their genes from one cell to another, and how they determine the structure and behavior of living things?
In the early 1940's, two American geneticists, George Wells Beadle and Edward Lawrie Tatum, provided the first important clues. They worked with the fungus Neurospora and Penicillium, and found that genes direct the formation of enzymes through their constituent units. Each unit (a polypeptide) is produced by a specific gene. This paper studies directed toward the chemical nature of genes and helped establish the field of molecular genetics.
It has long been known that chromosomes are composed almost entirely of two types of chemicals, proteins and nucleic acids. Partly because of the close relationship between genes and enzymes, proteins, initially seemed latter that determined the fundamental substance of heredity. However, in 1944, the Canadian bacteriologist Oswald Theodore Avery proved that deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was performed in this function.
DNA extracted from a strain of bacteria and introduced into another strain. The second not only acquired the characteristics of the first, but also transmitted to subsequent generations.
At that time, he knew that DNA consisted of substances called nucleotides. Each nucleotide was made in turn by a phosphate group, a sugar known as deoxyribose and one of the four bases containing nitrogen. The four nitrogenous bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C).
In 1953, the American geneticist James Dewey Watson and Francis Harry Compton Crick British pooled their knowledge of chemistry and worked together in the structure of DNA. This information is immediately provided the means to understand how hereditary information is copied.
Watson and Crick discovered the DNA molecule consists of two chains, or filaments, elongated is wound into a double helix, similar to a long spiral staircase.
Chains, or sides of the ladder, are constituted by phosphate molecules, and carbohydrates that are alternated.
The nitrogenous bases, arranged in pairs, representing the steps.
Each base is attached to a sugar molecule and linked by a hydrogen bond to a complementary base located on the opposite strand.
Adenine always binds with thymine, and guanine with cytosine.
To make a new, identical copy of the DNA molecule, one need only that the two chains are extended and are separated by their bases (which are joined to form weak), thanks to the presence in the cell more nucleotides, can be separated string attached to each new complementary bases, forming two double helices.
If the sequence of bases that exist in a chain was AGATC, the new contain the complementary sequence, or "mirror image" TCTAG.Since the base of each chromosome is a long DNA molecule formed by two chains, the production of two identical double helices give rise to two identical chromosomes.
Since it was shown that proteins were the products of genes, and each gene was composed of fractions of DNA strands, scientists concluded that there must be a genetic code by which the order of the four nitrogenous bases in DNA could determine the amino acid sequence in the formation of polypeptides.
In other words, there must be a process by which the nitrogenous bases transmit the information dictates the protein synthesis. This process could explain how genes control the forms and functions of cells, tissues and organisms.
Ten years after it was determined the structure of DNA, the genetic code was deciphered and verified. Their solution depended largely on research carried out on another group of nucleic acids, ribonucleic acids (RNA).
Human heritage
Most human physical characteristics are influenced by multiple variables genetic as well as by the medium. Some, such as height, have a strong genetic component, while others, such as weight, have a very important environmental component. However, it seems that other characters, such as blood group antigens involved in transplant rejection, are entirely determined by genetic components.There is no known means situation varies due to these characteristics.
Susceptibility to certain diseases has a significant genetic component. This group includes schizophrenia, tuberculosis, malaria, various forms of cancer, migraine headaches and hypertension. Many rare diseases are caused by recessive genes, and some dominant genes.
Most human physical characteristics are influenced by multiple variables genetic as well as by the medium. Some, such as height, have a strong genetic component, while others, such as weight, have a very important environmental component. However, it seems that other characters, such as blood group antigens involved in transplant rejection, are entirely determined by genetic components.There is no known means situation varies due to these characteristics.
Susceptibility to certain diseases has a significant genetic component. This group includes schizophrenia, tuberculosis, malaria, various forms of cancer, migraine headaches and hypertension. Many rare diseases are caused by recessive genes, and some dominant genes.

Biologists are very interested in the study and identification ofgenes. When a particular gene is involved in a specific disease, hisstudy is very important from a medical standpoint. The human genome contains between 50,000 and 100,000 genes, of whichabout 4,000 can be associated with disease.
The Human Genome Project, coordinated by multiple institutions, began in 1990 to establish the complete human genome. The main objective of this project is to draw maps of various genomes,including the complete nucleotide sequence of the human genome
The Human Genome Project, coordinated by multiple institutions, began in 1990 to establish the complete human genome. The main objective of this project is to draw maps of various genomes,including the complete nucleotide sequence of the human genome










